Research and exploration of polar regions and oceans are processes that expand Korea’s scientific and resource territory beyond its national borders, into the common areas of the Earth shared by humanity. Beyond mere competition for territory and resources among nations, these endeavors represent international cooperation in responding to global climate change and environmental changes, utilizing Korea’s research and technological capabilities.
Korea’s polar research and exploration began in earnest after joining the Antarctic Treaty in November 1986, with the construction of the Antarctic King Sejong Station, a permanent scientific base, in 1988. At the King Sejong Station, about 18 overwintering researchers stay throughout the year, while approximately 100 summer researchers are dispatched from December to February, the Antarctic summer, to conduct various studies.
Since the construction of the King Sejong Station, Korea has carried out various research and exploration activities centered around the station. In 2014, Korea expanded its research and exploration to a broader area closer to the Antarctic continent with the construction of the Jang Bogo Antarctic Research Station. Since 2009, Korea has been building geographical information by conducting surveys and mapping around the station. A total of 27 unique Antarctic place names (17 in 2011 and 10 in 2012) were registered in the Composite Gazetteer of Antarctica (CGA).
Research and exploration in the Arctic have been actively conducted since the establishment of the Dasan Arctic Research Station in 2002. In 2012, Korea obtained permanent observer status in the Arctic Council, providing opportunities for direct participation in the Arctic route and resource development. The Dasan Arctic Research Station, the 12th Arctic science station in the world, operates as a non-permanent base, visited by about 60 domestic and international researchers each summer (June to September).
In 2009, Korea constructed its first icebreaker for polar research, the Araon, which began navigating independently in the icy waters of the Arctic and Antarctic. The Araon carries out polar research, creates new routes, and supplies the Antarctic and Arctic scientific stations. Utilizing seabed topography data collected by the Araon, Korea registered two Korean seabed names, Dolphin Hill Group and Ggotshin Noll, with the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) in 2013, and in 2014, produced and published a provisional nautical chart for the waters around the Jang Bogo Antarctic Research Station
Korea’s Marine Science Bases
Research on the seas surrounding Korea holds significant importance related to Korea’s territory. Korea has established a national ocean observation network, consisting of tidal observation stations, marine observation stations, marine observation buoys, seawater flow observation stations, and comprehensive marine science bases. This network collects, analyzes, and discloses various observational data, such as tides, water temperature, waves, currents, and marine weather. These data are useful for coastal environmental protection and marine safety operations.
Ieodo Ocean Research Station
The Ieodo Ocean Research Station symbolizes Korea’s interest in the Ieodo waters. The station was built by the Korea Ocean Research Institute with an investment of KRW 21.2 billion from 1995 to June 11, 2003. It provides real-time marine and weather information and typhoon forecasts and conducts scientific research on climate change and marine environmental characteristics in the Northwest Pacific region. The total area of the Ieodo Ocean Research Station is 1,320 km², with a height of 36 m above sea level and a total height of 76 m from the underwater rock. It is located 149 km southwest of Marado, Korea, 276 km west of Torishima, Japan, and 287 km northeast of Seshan Island, China, at latitude 32°07’ N, longitude 125°10’ E.
The Ieodo Ocean Research Station was established to perform comprehensive ocean observations, collecting marine, meteorological, and environmental data. Positioned along a path through which over 60% of the typhoons affecting the Korean Peninsula pass, it plays a vital role in typhoon observation, research, and forecasting, and serves as a lighthouse for safe navigation and a forward base for marine rescue operations. Additionally, the Korea Ocean Research Institute employees inspect observation equipment at the station. The station is equipped with 13 advanced meteorological observation devices, 20 marine observation devices, six environmental observation devices, and four structural stability measuring devices. The data collected are transmitted in real-time via the Mugunghwa satellite to the Korea Ocean Research Institute and the Korea Meteorological Administration.
Sinan Gagocho Ocean Research Station
The Sinan Gageocho Ocean Research Station was completed on October 13, 2009, with a total area of 286 m², a height of 31 m above sea level, and a total height of 46 m from the underwater rock. Located 47 km west of Gageo Island, at latitude 33°56’ N, longitude 124°35’ E, the station is positioned in the southern West Sea. The West Sea is significant because various marine phenomena, weather phenomena, and atmospheric constituents travel into Korea due to the westerly winds. This station significantly contributes to understanding the effects of fine dust, a major environmental issue in Korea.
The Sinan Gageocho Ocean Research Station provides real-time meteorological and marine information on the internet to support related marine industries such as fishing, maritime traffic, and marine leisure, and also helps reduce damage caused by disasters by improving the accuracy of marine and weather forecasts.
Ongjin Socheongcho Ocean Research Statio
The Ongjin Socheongcho Ocean Research Station was constructed under the name Socheongcho Ocean Research Station by the Korea Institute of Ocean Science and Technology between 2011 and 2014, with its operation commencing on January 1, 2016, after a trial run from 2014 to 2015.
Like the Sinan Gageocho Ocean Research Station, the Ongjin Socheongcho Ocean Research Station was established to enhance the accuracy of weather and marine forecasts for the West Sea and protect the marine environment, reflecting the increasing importance of the West Sea’s marine environment and weather information. The station provides atmospheric environmental information, including data on yellow dust, fine dust, ozone, and environmental radioactivity, and monitors the formation and annual changes of West Sea bottom cold water and global ocean environmental changes.
Currently, the Ongjin Socheongcho Ocean Research Station, operated by the National Oceanographic Research Institute, covers an area of 2,700 m², with a total height of 90 m from the underwater rock. The station is located 37 km south of Socheong Island, at the coordinates 37°25’ N, 124°44’ E.
National Ocean Observation Network
The National Ocean Observation Network is an observation network operated to effectively manage Korea’s jurisdictional waters. It consists of tidal observation stations, marine observation stations, marine observation buoys, seawater flow observation stations, and comprehensive marine science bases. The data observed through the National Ocean Observation Network include tide, water temperature, salinity, wind direction, wind speed, current direction, current speed, and wave height. Collecting and analyzing marine observation data through the National Ocean Observation Network contributes to enhancing national capabilities related to the use, development, conservation, climate change, and marine disasters of Korea’s jurisdictional waters. Additionally, the establishment and operation of such a national ocean observation network carry significance for building marine surveillance infrastructure necessary for strengthening marine defense capabilities. The data collected through the National Ocean Observation Network is publicly available on the internet through the Korea Ocean Observing and Forecasting System (KOOFS). The analyzed results of the observation data are provided to approximately 200 related institutions in newsletters, annual white papers, and special phenomenon reports.
Research in the Field of Geodesy
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), used in navigation, surveying, and geodesy, is a system that provides information on the position, altitude, and velocity of ground objects using artificial satellites. The system is operated at 165 GNSS observation stations by eight institutions, including the National Geographic Information Institute, the Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries, the Korea Meteorological Administration, Korea Land and Geospatial Informatix Corporation, the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute, and the Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources. Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), a technology that measures the precise location of ground reference points and the movement of the Earth in space, is being operated with an astronomy research VLBI (Seoul, Ulsan, Jeju) and a geodesy-dedicated VLBI (Sejong).
Since the 1990s, research and development in the field of space have been actively conducted, leading to the launch of seven scientific and technology satellites, five multipurpose practical satellites for Earth observation, and three geostationary orbit satellites. Additionally, to secure satellite launch operation technology, three scientific rockets were launched, and in 2009, the Naro Space Center was established on Naro Island in Goheung County, South Jeolla Province. In 2013, KSLV-1 (Naro), which carried a 100 kg-class small satellite, was launched. In 2018, the test launch of an engine for developing the Korean launch vehicle Nuri was successful. In 2021, KSLV-2 (Nuri), carrying a 1,500 kg-class practical satellite, was launched, and with the consecutive successes of the second and third Nuri launches in 2022 and 2023, South Korea became the seventh country capable of placing a satellite weighing over 1 ton into orbit, following the United States, Russia, China, Japan, France (EU), and India.
Additionally, the government has been fostering the space industry through the creation of the Southern Coast Space Industry Cluster and has been leading institutional support through the establishment of the Space Aviation Agency (inaugurated May 27, 2024), which is responsible for space and aviation industries. The Space Industry Cluster is a growth hub for nurturing a privately-led space industry. In December 2022, the government designated Gyeongnam as a satellitespecialized zone, Jeonnam as a launch vehicle-specialized zone, and Daejeon as a research and talent development-specialized zone through the National Space Committee. In Jinju, the Space Environment Test Facility, which will be the core infrastructure of the satellite-specialized zone, is planned to be built.
Jeollanam-do, the launch vehicle-specialized zone, is home to Korea’s only Naro Space Center and is considered the best region for expanding private launch sites. It has the optimal conditions for supporting the launch vehicle industry. To drive the private launch vehicle industry, various plans are being established and pursued, such as specialized industrial complexes, private launch sites, and the construction of a launch vehicle technology commercialization center.
Gyeongsangnam-do, the satellite-specialized zone, has a system integrator company that serves as a hub for the satellite industry, with numerous related companies concentrated in the area and possessing excellent manufacturing innovation capabilities. The government has also announced plans to expand infrastructure, such as a Satellite Manufacturing Innovation Center, to support timely satellite development.
Lastly, Daejeon Metropolitan City, the research and talent developmentspecialized zone, is a well-known city of science and research, with key research institutions, educational institutions, and companies related to the space sector densely clustered, possessing the nation’s top level of research and development expertise and infrastructure.
In 2015, the UN adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to address global economic, social, and environmental issues in an integrated manner. This framework outlines common goals for humanity to achieve by 2030 to enhance the quality of life for both current and future generations. Likewise, various natural disasters and abnormal weather patterns around the world have made the international community aware of the seriousness of rapid climate change. As a result, the Paris Agreement was adopted in 2015, marking the launch of a new climate regime involving both developed and developing countries. This regime aims to limit the global temperature increase to within 1.5 degrees Celsius, implementing worldwide response measures to achieve this.
In South Korea, despite its outwardly high economic growth, contradictions persist, such as income inequality, environmental degradation like fine dust, and a lack of quality jobs, which have not substantially improved the quality of life for its citizens. Against this backdrop, the government selected the enhancement of sustainable development as a national agenda in 2018 and established the Korea Sustainable Development Goals (K-SDGs) to complement the Third Basic Plan for Sustainable Development.
The K-SDGs encompass universal values and goals that the international community aims to achieve by 2030. They consist of 17 areas, 122 detailed goals, and 214 indicators. To establish a development direction suitable for South Korea’s situation, 122 new indicators, not included in the UN-SDGs, were added to the total indicators, accounting for 57% of the whole, balancing global and nation-specific indicators.
Additionally, the process of establishing the K-SDGs employed a bottom-up approach involving participation from government-related departments, private stakeholders, and the general public, unlike the top-down decision-making methods commonly seen in previous policies.
Introduction of Renewable Energy and Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Performance Indicators
One of the various responses to sustainable development and climate change is the energy transition, which emphasizes replacing the fossil fuel-based energy system with the distribution of renewable energy. Policies toward carbon neutrality in various countries include the decarbonization of the transition sector through an increased share of renewable energy.
South Korea is also actively promoting the distribution of renewable energy through Goal 7 of the K-SDGs, titled “Environmentally Friendly Production and Consumption of Energy.” Ahead of the Paris Agreement in 2015, the South Korean government announced a commitment to a 37% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to the business-as-usual (BAU) level by 2030. Following the inauguration of the Moon Jae-in Administration in 2017, the government announced that it would reduce emissions by about 24.4% by 2030 compared to 2017, applying the reduction standards of developed countries.
Following the Paris Agreement, the UN implemented an emissions trading system, where countries are assigned specific greenhouse gas emissions limits. If a country exceeds its limit, it can purchase emission rights from other countries; if it emits less, it can sell its emission rights. Moreover, to promote environmental contributions from private companies, ESG performance indicators are being actively utilized in management evaluations, thereby increasing corporate social responsibility and encouraging proactive responses to environmental and climate change issues.
Interest in and evaluation of ESG management are being conducted not only for companies but also for local governments. In 2023, the government assessed the ESG suitability of local governments’ administration and policies and their regional sustainability by measuring and evaluating the performance and capacity of local governments concerning the basic principles and responsibilities outlined in the Framework Act on Sustainable Development.
Additionally, ESG management has emerged as a campaign in the form of RE100, which stands for Renewable Energy 100%. This campaign aims for companies to source 100% of their electricity from renewable energy sources, such as wind or solar power, by 2050. To achieve RE100, companies are adopting renewable energy in various ways, such as directly building facilities like solar power plants or purchasing electricity from renewable energy power plants.
In South Korea, the Korean-style RE100 (K-RE100) system was introduced in 2021, allowing electricity consumers in South Korea to purchase or use renewable energy regardless of their annual electricity consumption by registering with the Korea Energy Agency. To actively promote this, various implementation measures have been launched and support provided for recognizing performance since 2021, allowing companies and public institutions to purchase renewable energy electricity. Additionally, efforts to practically implement RE100 are underway through amendments to the Electricity Business Act and its Enforcement Decree (October 2021) to enable direct Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) between renewable energy operators and electricity consumers. As a result, the capacity for renewable energy participation in the electricity market has steadily increased from 2019 to 2023..
Currently, global companies actively participating in the RE100 campaign are increasingly demanding the use of renewable energy from their suppliers or local partners, emphasizing RE100 through international financial or industrial networks. Likewise, various domestic companies are also being asked to implement RE100 by domestic and foreign trading partners. However, as of 2024, there were only 36 companies participating in the RE100 campaign in South Korea, indicating that, as a member of the international community, South Korea needs further growth in the production and use of renewable energy for future generations.
Status of Renewable Energy in South Korea
Renewable energy in South Korea has shown continuous and gradual growth since it was included as a category in energy statistics after 1990. However, as of 2022, renewable energy only accounts for about 6% of the total energy generation mix, which includes oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear power. The amount of renewable energy generated in South Korea also remains relatively low at approximately 33% of the OECD average in 2022.
Renewable energy types can be classified into solar power, hydropower, bioenergy, fuel cells, wind power, ocean energy, waste energy, thermal energy, and the use of integrated gasification combined cycle technology (IGCC). Except for hydropower and waste energy generation, the generation and distribution capacities in all fields are gradually increasing. Solar power generation is a technology that produces electricity by converting the sun’s light energy, using solar cells that generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect when exposed to sunlight. As of 2022, it accounted for 53% of the total renewable energy generation in South Korea, making it the largest share among renewable energy sources. In addition, solar power generation is the most popular form of renewable energy generation, with significant shares not only in commercial but also in personal power generation compared to other forms. Regionally, it has a high proportion in areas with plains, such as Jeollabuk-do and Chungcheongnam-do, and in areas with salt farms, such as Jeollanam-do. Thanks to these geographical features, Jeollabuk-do ranked first in the nation for renewable energy production as of 2022.
Hydropower is a technology that utilizes the flow and potential energy of water. Before 2005, facilities with a capacity of 10 MW or less were classified as small hydropower, but current legal revisions define all hydropower as renewable energy. Hydropower types include dam power generation, canal power generation, tunnel and waterway alteration power generation, dam-canal power generation, and pumped-storage power generation. In South Korea, there are 21 dam power plants and seven pumped-storage power plants that are well known. According to Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power, additional pumped-storage power plants will be built in nine regions, including Yeongdong
Bioenergy refers to a type of power generation that utilizes biomass in solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel form, or electricity and thermal energy through direct or biochemical and physical conversion processes. As of 2022, Jeollabuk-do produced 36.4% of the country’s total bioenergy output, which can be seen as a result of intensive investment in bioenergy generation in Jeollabuk-do. In addition, Jeollabukdo designated Buan-gun as a rapeseed pilot cultivation complex for biodiesel raw materials in 2007 and has been consistently attracting bioenergy-related companies. The province has also established and operated the Bioenergy Crop Research Institute to link sustainable agriculture and eco-friendly energy production in the region’s agricultural production process.