Ancient Maps

Korean territory was represented on old maps created in the pre-modern era. Although the boundaries of the territory on these maps are not as clear as on maps made in the modern era, these antique maps reflect various and unique aspects of historic Korean territory and serve as evidence for territorial claims made today. Collectively, they represent Korean land ownership and Korean territorial perceptions of land as they have been shaped over time. These territorial documents are found not only on maps of prefectures, military maps, and general maps of Korea, but also on world maps made by cartographers, both Korean and others from around the world.
Although mapmaking in Korea dates back to before the Three Kingdoms Period, only the maps made during the Joseon dynasty now survive. The oldest existing Korean map today is the Honil gangni yeokdae gukdo jido (Map of Integrated Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals), which was made in 1402. This map is recognized as one of the best world maps among those in both Eastern and Western civilizations at the time. On the Gangnido, Joseon territory is bigger on the map than Africa, which reflects the Joseon dynasty’s pride in itself as a civilized state akin to China. Korean territory is most precisely delineated in a series of maps entitled Joseon jeondo (Complete Maps of Joseon).

 In the 15th century, cartographic efforts at making world maps and general maps of Joseon were largely based on land surveys. Under the reign of King Sejong, the fourth king of the Joseon dynasty, the distances between counties and prefectures were measured, and the latitudes of Baekdusan Mountain, Manisan Mountain, and Hallasan Mountain were determined, which prepared the future scientific foundation for the efforts of the Joseon dynasty cartographers. Jeong Cheok completed a map of the two border regions (currently Hamgyeong Province and Pyeongan Province) in 1451 and made the Dongkuk jido (Map of Korea) with Yang Seong-ji in 1463 (the 9th year of King Sejo). The Joseon bangyeok jido (Map of the Korean Territory) is a great example of the Joseon jeondo series made in the 15th century. This map features the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria to the north of the Amnokgang River, and the Dumangang River. It represents the view of the national territory held by Korean elites and scholars like Yang Seong-ji, who believed Korean territory extended beyond the Peninsula to include Manchuria.

 The Paldo chongdo (General Map of Eight Provinces) included in Sinjeung dongguk yeoji seungnam (Complete Conspectus of the Territory of the Eastern Country), which was made in 1530, is one of the most representative maps of Korean territory produced in the early Joseon dynasty. This map takes the form of an appended chart to complement the geographical description, but its description of the land is rather crude. The purpose of the map is not to delineate the country’s territory in detail, but to express the establishment of royal authority and Confucian ideas for governance by means of commemorative rites of the national land. The map indicates noted mountains, large rivers, and seas that are included in ritual codes. It also features some islands in the East Sea and the Yellow Sea such as Ulleungdo, Usando (currently Dokdo), and Heuksando, which highlights the fact that they belonged to the Joseon dynasty as long ago as the 16th century.

In the late Joseon dynasty, after the two devastating wars with Japan and Manchuria, various types of maps were made with the specific intention of defining the boundaries of Joseon territory. The increased awareness of border regions, such as the northern part of the Peninsula and the coastal and insular areas, was reflected in these maps. Military maps like Yogye gwanbang jido (Map of the Yogye Borderland) and Seobuk pia yanggye malli illam jido (Comprehensive Map for Defense of the West and North Border) identified the borderlands near the Amnokgang River and the Dumangang River. Sea route maps were needed to defend the territorial boundaries and coast. These maps prove that the specified borderlands belonged to Joseon.

This map is a copy of a manuscript world map made by Kwon Keun, Kim Sa-hyung, Lee Mu, and Lee Hoe in 1402 (the 2nd year of King Taejong). With China at the center of the map, it depicts the general form of the Old World, including Africa and Europe in the west with Joseon and Japan in the east. The western part of Arabia is also drawn on the map as it was known to Joseon cartographers thanks to the diffusion of Islamic cartography imported through Mongol influence during China’s Yuan dynasty. The map shows that Joseon cartographers were aware of and interested in different parts of the world, and is based on the China-centric world view. According to the preface at the bottom, the map was constructed from sources based on two Chinese maps (Shengjiao guangbei tu and Hunyi jiangli tu), a map of Joseon, and a map of Japan. The map is recognized as one of the best world maps among those produced in the early 15th century and in particular, as the first world map that depicts the African continent as a whole.

The Cheonha dojido is a western-style world map drawn in Joseon based on Wanguo quantu (Complete Map of All the Countries) in Zhifang wai ji, a book-length geographical description of the entire world authored by Giulio Aleni, a Christian missionary. Like the Kunyu wanguo quantu (A Map of the Myriad Countries of the World) made by Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit priest, this map placed China and East Asia at the center of the projection with the central meridian placed in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. It was an intentional arrangement promoting Sino-centrism. Southern continents were marked as mystery lands, reflecting that the southern hemisphere, including Oceania, was not yet known to the cartographer. The Cheonha dojido clearly labeled the “Small East Sea” and the “Small West Sea,” referring to the East Sea and the Yellow Sea, which did not appear on Aleni’s map, Wanguo quantu.

The Jigu jeonhudo, made by Choi Han-ki in 1834, is a wood-block atlas of the hemispheres based on Zhang Tingfu’s world map. The bottom left of the Jigu jeonhudo is marked with the production date and the nom de plume (pseudonym) of the cartographer, Tae Yeon-jae, which was the Buddhist name of Choi Han-ki. This map is different from the Kunyu quantu (Map of the World), an earlier map of the eastern and western hemispheres made by Ferdinand Verbiest, a Western missionary. While the Kunyu quantu has gaps between the lines of longitude that widened toward the edges, the Jigu jeonhudo has even gaps between lines of longitude. Also, the 24 seasonal divisions were labeled, something which did not appear in other contemporary maps. The equator, ecliptic latitudes, and the tropics were highlighted. Unlike the Kunyu quantu, Oceania and Antarctica were drawn separately, implying that Choi Han-ki knew about the discovery of tho

With Dobongsan Mountain and Bukhansan Mountain in the background, this map depicts the beautiful natural environment of Seoul in the form of a landscape painting along with the mountains of Baekaksan, Inwangsan, Mokmyeoksan (present-day Namsan), and Taraksan (present-day Naksan), which are collectively called Naesasan. In-town landscapes were drawn vertically and marked with place names. The planar description is intentional to contrast with the surrounding mountainous terrain. Written on the margin are descriptions of administrative districts, and the size of the city, roads, and streets, with Donhwamun Gate, the main gate of the Changdeokgung Palace, in the center to highlight Changdeokgung Palace as the main working palace of the country. The map was featured with a south-up orientation to reflect that the king would have sat facing south when taking care of state affairs.

 The name East Sea refers to the sea to the east of the Korean Peninsula. The name East Sea appears in various references, such as the monument of King Gwanggaeto, old records such as Sinjeung dongguk yeoji seungnam, and on old maps. The name East Sea is clearly labeled on the late 18th-century Aguk chongdo at the Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies at Seoul National University. Aguk chongdo was created in the late 18th century. This map is a small-sized map similar to the Dongkuk jido made by Jeong Sang-ki, and it is notable for its beautiful coloration. The map displays the names of the seas around Korea: the East Sea, the Yellow Sea, and the South Sea. Yeojido, which was designated as National Treasure No. 1592, is composed of three volumes of illuminating manuscripts and maps created during the late-Joseon dynasty. The first volume contains six copies of maps including a world map, a map of China, a map of Beijing and Hanyang, and a national map. Among them, Joseon ilbon ryukyu gukdo, which depicts Joseon, Japan, and the Ryukyu Kingdom (currently, Okinawa prefecture of Japan) clearly shows the names East Sea and Ulleungdo.

 The name East Sea also appears on a Western-style world map entitled Cheonhado jido, which is now preserved in the Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies at Seoul National University. It was made during the Joseon dynasty and was based on the Wanguo quantu by Giulio Aleni. On this map, the East Sea is referred to as the “Small East Sea,” and the Yellow Sea as the “Small West Sea.” These names were added in the Cheonha dojido by the Joseon cartographers as they did not appear in Aleni’s Wanguo quantu.

 Dokdo appeared on various ancient maps of Korea. It was called “Usando” during the Joseon Period. The island was marked as Korean territory on various Joseon jeondos (Maps of Korea) as well as on the Ulleungdo maps included within the maps of counties and prefectures. Dokdo, or Usando, was erroneously marked to the west of Ulleungdo on maps made in the early Joseon Period. However, in the late Joseon Period, the location was corrected, and the island was placed to the east of Ulleungdo as a result of the famous Ahn Yong-bok incident, which facilitated the communication of information about Dokdo. The Dongkuk jido by Jeong Sang-ki placed Dokdo very close to its actual location. A close-to-accurate placement is also found on the Haejwa jeondo.

The Haejwa jeondo is assumed to have been made in the middle of the 19th century. “Haejwa” refers to Joseon, which sits to the east of China. Its format and content are similar to the Dongkuk jido made by Jeong Sang-ki; the mountain chain, the hydrographic pattern, and the transportation network were drawn in the same manner as on the Dongkuk jido. On this map, Jungbong Peak on Ulleungdo was described as a mountain, and Usando was depicted as a small islet with a mountainous peak and part of Ulleungdo’s insular area. A sea route starting from Uljin appeared on the map. In the margin is a short statement about the history of Ulleungdo and its geographic background, which is the same as the one included in the Sinjeung dongguk yeoji seungnam, a geography book.

 The Joseon jido of the 18th century is an atlas of counties and prefectures, including those of Dokdo. The Joseon jido was a product of the national mapmaking project that sought to produce complete maps of Korea, like the Dongguk jido created by Jeong Sang-ki during the reign of King Youngjo. This map was drawn with a checkerboard system, and each cell was 4.1– 4.2 cm. Its accuracy in distance measurements and direction was a great improvement over the pictorial maps of counties and prefectures. Given the overall structure and content, its description of Ulleungdo seems to have been based on a separate Ulleungdo map that was compiled from previous cumulative research efforts on Ulleungdo. On this map, Usando is located farther to the east of Ulleungdo than on previous pictorial maps. Since one cell equates to 20-ri, the distance between Usando and Ulleungdo is measured to be approximately 40-ri. Because Usando is detached from Ulleungdo, it confirms that the Usando portrayed on that map is, in fact, present-day Dokdo.

Joseon had not been mapped in great detail on European maps prior to the early 17th century, and this omission meant that Ulleungdo and Dokdo rarely appeared. Later, in 1735, Joseon was described in detail on Royaume de Corée (Complete Map of the Kingdom of Joseon) by Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d’Anville, a French cartographer. D’Anville drew Ulleungdo and Dokdo in the East Sea. Royaume de Corée, which was included in Atlas de la Chine, showed two islands labeled as “Tchian-chan-tao,” referring to Usando (Dokdo), and “Fan-ling-tao,” referring to Ulleungdo. This map greatly influenced successive maps, so many subsequent maps in France, the United Kingdom, and Germany were produced with Ulleungdo and Dokdo properly labeled.